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Introduction

(to Bielenberg, A. (ed.) (2000) The Irish Diaspora. London: Pearson)

Piaras Mac Ã‰inrÃ

1 Migration Studies - a rapidly changing field.

Migration studies is a catch-all term encompassing a multi-disciplinary field. It includes emigration (often the sole focus in Ireland and other "exporting" countries), immigration, internal and return migration[1]. It embraces voluntarist and structuralist perspectives, labour migration and refugees, assimilation and expulsion. More recently the increasing use of the term diaspora [2] denotes a de-centred approach in which migration, migrants and their multigenerational societies and cultures are seen as phenomena in themselves and not simply in relation to the countries of origin and reception. For most of its relatively short life, migration studies has focused disproportionately on immigration. This is not surprising. The immigrant is a real presence in the receiving society; the question of how natives and newcomers are to relate to one another is not an abstract one. If one adds to this sheer numbers and an ideology of openness towards the immigrant, characteristic of historical attitudes in the United States (especially if the subject in question is white and European), it is hardly surprising that American scholarship has long been dominant in migration studies. Even if Ravenstein[3] may be regarded as its parent, many of its best exponents have worked in the field of American historical scholarship and many of its paradigms, from the Chicago School[4] to the melting pot and beyond[5], from multiculturalism[6] and world systems theories[7] to postmodernist questioning of identity politics[8], have been American-inspired or at least begun on American campuses.

By contrast, it would have been easy, at least until relatively recently, and especially in the anglophone world, to underestimate the role of migration in European society. Yet France, for instance, has attracted large numbers of immigrants for centuries[9]. The post-war period saw an upsurge in mass migratory movements, characterised by south-north flows, the impact of decolonisation and a tendency to see migrants as economic units but not as full members of society[10]. Unlike the USA, the European nation state remained for the most part an ethno-national entity. This has created an ever-growing conflict between universalist Enlightenment ideals and state ideology, a conflict which has frequently centred on the place of minorities or immigrants, especially those of non-European origins[11], within the State. In late 20^th century Europe the upsurge in global forced migration, as opposed to economic migration, and the challenge posed by a potentially transnational EU citizenship, are helping to define a new agenda. The shape of this new agenda is far from clear as yet and must regrettably be characterised for now as driven more by a desire to contain than to embrace.

The entire question of migration, the migrant identity and the place of migrants in society is the subject of global consideration from within many disciplines. Issues of multiculturalism, multi-ethnicity and hybridity are being explored; in the process the supremacy of a unitary, place-based ethnic identity is being called into question[12]. With globalisation and the increasing integration of the world economic, cultural and information infrastructure, there is an increased danger of the emergence of a migrant elite on the one hand and a disempowered community of transients, serving the needs of an implacable globalised economy, on the other.

Previous assumptions of a discrete Ravensteinian, push-pull universe, divided between place of origin, intervening variables and place of arrival, reflected in a one-way assimilationist path, are being challenged by new realities. Migrancy, to use Chambers'[13] term, is increasingly seen as process, a state of being in itself, and not as a temporary transitional phase before the subject is absorbed by the new society. There are many alternatives to assimilation, from multiculturalism to outright expulsion. Host societies are themselves profoundly challenged and changed by the presence of migrants, and the process of integration is no longer seen as a one-way path in which the migrant becomes a member of an unchanged host society through the suppression of his/her own cultural values. It is no longer a matter of "them" becoming "us"[14]. Diasporic identities, transnational and subversive in character, challenge the security of identities defined, but also limited, by national boundaries.

There has been a major shift in the terms of the debate and the nature of the enquiry, hence the new emphasis on life history approaches, discourse analysis and feminist perspectives[15]. The comparative context of migration studies is receiving increasing emphasis. The specificities of migration, in terms of region, gender, class, ethnic and other factors, are receiving attention, as is the global and inter-linked nature of migration. The impact of migration on the person at the heart of the process is also beginning to be studied. While the role of historical enquiry continues to be central, social science, legal, literary and behavioral approaches, as well as neo-Marxist and other structuralist perspectives, are all being brought to bear.

The result has been a remarkable flowering and diversity of research, teaching and publications in the field, accompanying the ever-greater significance being attached to it at political and social level. That said, and as the present volume bears out, historical enquiry is still central. The increasing emphasis on complexity and specificity confers a growing importance and value on local and regional studies as well as those, for instance, which emphasise longitudinal, sectoral and gender-based approaches, using a variety of new methodologies.

2 The background to the increasing interest in Irish migration studies.

Alan O'Day[16] is probably correct when he suggests that the study of Irish migration is characterised by a strong emphasis on American sources (U.S. and Canadian) and when he notes that, apart from certain prominent exceptions (singling out Doyle[17] and Fitzpatrick[18]), it is mainly the product of scholarship from outside Ireland - indeed, in a sense, this is fitting. In his stimulating overview Revising the Diaspora he is nonetheless critical of the field as a whole, suggesting that there is no conceptual/theoretical framework to link the Irish to international perspectives. He also notes that there is no standard interpretation of the Diaspora (which is probably no bad thing). He pleads for a greater recognition of the complexity and specificity of Irish migration patterns, while recognising the obvious gaps in statistical data, such as the non-availability of US data on religious affiliation. He notes that "despite differences of origin, the chronology and methodology bears a remarkable resemblance to other areas of Irish history". He also notes that, in spite of the American dominance, "recent work on Australia, Britain and Canada suggests that this pre-eminence is under threat".

Within post-independence Ireland, emigration was a silent haemorrhage, treated by denial, and about which only the historians had much to say. The palpable public silence persisted with occasional exceptions such as the monumental Report of the Commission on Emigration and other population problems [19] of the 1950s. The problem "disappeared", or so people thought, in the 1960s and 1970s, only to re-appear with renewed vigour in the 1980s. Largely due to a downturn in the Irish economy and the effect of the baby boom of the 1960s, the ghost of emigration, forgotten since the 1950s, returned to haunt the Irish body politic. One upshot of the change was the publication of only the second extensive official study on the impact of emigration, the NESC report, in 1991[20]. Much public and political attention was paid to Irish undocumented aliens in the USA at this time, proof of the persistence of traditional choices, the enduring fascination of America (after all most emigrants were in fact still going to the UK but they received far less attention) and the new-found political strength of the emigrant lobby[21]. This possibly had partly to do with their more middle-class background in some cases, but partly to do with the opening up of Irish society and the fact that with the information revolution and the relative ease of return it was increasingly impossible to ignore the new generation of migrants. They would not remain silent and would not disappear.

Partly as a result of the above changes, the study of the Irish Diaspora, in parallel with migration studies in general, has blossomed in recent years and decades. The context for these changes is multi-faceted and a number of public and/or political events played a significant role. Apart from the return to of large-scale Irish migration in the late 1980s already mentioned, these included the bicentennial of the American Revolution in 1976 and the equivalent Australian celebration in 1988, both of which generated significant new scholarship in their respective fields[22].

In the 1990s, the 150^th anniversary of the Great Famine led to a new outpouring of interest and much new research into 19^th century migration. As the Famine Museum in Strokestown demonstrates, connections also began to be made between 19^th century Irish famine and forced migration and the experience of other peoples in other parts of the world in the present day.

Ireland has always denied its migrant children the most fundamental expression of their political rights - the right to vote - and continues to do so. Nonetheless, the 1980s and 1990s saw a new and remarkable emphasis on the ties between the Irish at home and those around the world. In part this was cultural - the new wave of Irish singers, musicians and cultural artists, from within the country but also from within the Diaspora, who put Irish identity on the map and even made it cool. In part it was the attention paid by newly elected President Mary Robinson to the global Irish Diaspora.

One must also pay tribute to the remarkable success of Irish political lobbying in Washington. This lobbying was successful, not only in placing Irish immigration high on the agenda in the Congressional debates on new migrants, but also in promoting Irish interests in the growing debate concerning the US role in Anglo-Irish affairs. The extraordinary success of Irish diplomats, lobbyists and politicians was tribute to a new confidence and maturity.

Finally, the much spoken of Celtic Tiger economy has not benefited all in Irish society, but it has had a dramatic effect on migration in and out of Ireland. Many former migrants have returned, while the country is also experiencing, for the first time, significant inflows of migrants with no Irish background, including EU citizens and forced migrants from many different countries[23]. As a country of significant net migration we are faced with new challenges[24]. So far we are not dealing very successfully with these challenges but it may be that a greater historical understanding of the difficulties faced by Irish migrants in other places may result in a more tolerant and welcoming policy towards immigrants.

3 New scholarship in Irish migration and diaspora studies.

Well before the 1980s and 1990s, there were signs of a developing interest in the field. The pioneering work of such scholars as William Forbes Adams[25], Arnold Schrier[26] and Damian Hannan[27] was followed by an upsurge of research from the 1970s onwards. Donald Akenson[28], David Noel Doyle[29], David Fitzpatrick[30], Kerby Miller[31], Cormac Ã“ GrÃ¡da[32], Brendan Walsh[33] and Patrick O'Farrell[34] are among the dominant figures.

At the same time the general emphasis on cultural relativism characteristic of the post-1960s period and the "roots" phenomenon associated with African-American self-awareness engendered a new interest in questions of ethnicity, identity and difference. The sometimes celebratory, sometimes critical tone of earlier work (e.g. Glazer and Moynihan [35]) was carried out within an integrationist framework even while being critical of the limits of that framework, but this gave way to a new interest in the subject's point of view (e.g. Handlin[36]). A good example of the new approach is Miller's monumental Emigrants and Exiles[37] a controversial hypothesis attempting to reconstruct the pre-modern worldview of the Irish "exile", based on an exhaustive analysis of emigrant letters, folksong and other sources.

Many other scholars entered the field, from many disciplines and many countries, using new methodologies. Thus, in more recent times, women migrants have been considered by a range of scholars, including Hasia Diner[38] and Janet Nolan[39]. Perspectives in geography, ethnic studies and sociology have been employed by such scholars as Mary Hickman[40], Bronwen Walter[41] and Breda Gray[42]. Local immigration studies are exemplified by the fine New York Irish[43], edited by Ronald Bayor and Timothy Meagher, with a significant input by Marion Casey. Theoretical areas concerning the representation of the migrant experience are being explored[44]. Longitudinal studies, among the most difficult of approaches, have been pioneered by Bruce Elliott[45], while David Fitzpatrick has broken new ground in his use of discourse analysis and spatially-based approaches to reconstruct kinship networks in Oceans of Consolation[46]. The new interest in Irish migration has also led to research in previously under-valued areas of Irish migration, such as the role of the Irish religious diaspora[47] (Edmund Hogan) and the Irish in Argentina (Eduardo Coghlan[48], Patrick McKenna[49] and others). Sectoral, local and other specific studies have also been pioneered in recent years notably in Patrick O'Sullivan's monumental six-volume collection on the Irish worldwide[50]. Recent scholarship has also embraced new critical perspectives, as exemplified by Jim MacLaughlin's[51] use of world systems theory to explain the role of Irish emigration, postcolonial perspectives such as those offered by David Lloyd[52] and the controversial debate about the links between Irish socio-economic integration in the USA and their developing consciousness of "whiteness" in Ignatiev's work[53]. The shortcomings of past statistics are being addressed through the work of demographers such as Damian Courtney[54]. Return migration is beginning to be examined for the first time by scholars such as Elizabeth Malcolm[55] and Mary Corcoran[56], while there have been as yet only a small number of studies into the "new" Irish migrants of the 1980s[57]. Finally, Irish migration in increasingly being presented in a comparative European (e.g. Delaney's work in this volume) and world context or through long-term enquiry, enabling the old chestnut of Irish "exceptionalism", to use Akenson's phrase, to be measured against the experience of other groups[58].

The noticeable increase in research in this field has been encouraged by the existence of active academic associations for the promotion of Irish Studies, including ACIS (American Committee for Irish Studies), BAIS (British Association for Irish Studies), CAIS (Canadian Association for Irish Studies), EFACIS (European Federation of Associations and Centres for Irish Studies), SOFEIR (SocietÃ© FranÃ§aise d'Ã‰tudes Irlandaises) and IASIL (International Association for the Study of Irish Literatures). It is noticeable that the number of papers on migration-related topics has grown steadily in recent years. New technologies are also playing a role, exemplified by the quiet but very effective work of Patrick O'Sullivan's Irish Diaspora discussion forum.

4 The present volume

The Irish Diaspora illustrates some of the themes and changes which have been outlined above. The contributions of a number of well-known and less well known historians are complemented by sociological, geographical, political science and demographic perspectives, from several parts of the world as well as from Ireland. The volume consciously seeks to adopt a comparative world approach to Irish migration, considering the Irish migrant experience at different periods in Britain, the Americas and the British Empire as well as offering fresh perspectives on statistical, theoretical and comparative issues. This serves effectively to explore those aspects which might be supposed to be common to the Irish migrant experience in different times and places, while questioning a number of myths about such themes as the religious character and confessional relations between host community and Irish migrants and among Irish migrants themselves, the extent or lack of socio-economic advancement among Irish migrants compared to other migrant communities and the underlying question of whether Irish migration may indeed be characterised as "unique" or may be compared to other migration movements from other countries.

If there is one point which emerges more clearly than any other, it is the sheer diversity and complexity of Irish migration. The stereotypical image of Irish migrants as poorly educated, rural, poor and Catholic, settling in large numbers in east coast American cities and making their way only slowly in the host society, is countered by a fascinating range of alternatives. Patrick McKenna's synthesis of the Irish experience in Argentina is one of the most startling. Here is a group of midlands farmers and skilled and semi-skilled tradespeople who "were without doubt the most financially successful group of Irish emigrants in the world at that time, and certainly the most successful ethnic group, by a wide margin, in Argentina." The picture is rendered even more complex by the origins of this movement, with the arrival as far back as the 16^th century of Irish colonists in the service of Spain. McKenna further makes the point that the Argentine case represents an alternative model to the individualist "Anglo-American" migration experience, with a strong community-based ethos driving the process of migration and a consciously separatist culture maintaining, for better or for worse, a sense of diasporic identity.

Graham Davis examines pre- and post-Famine Irish migration to Britain. A nuanced discussion of the specific experiences of different Irish communities explores the extent to which the Irish were the victims of specific forms of negative stereotyping and whether they, in turn, developed a general "oppression history" to explain their situation. Davis stresses the diversity of migrant streams, destinations and experiences. Stereotyping and scapegoating in some areas are contrasted with an absence of such representations, and an absence of negative relations, in other areas of significant Irish settlement. Davis' article rejects any easy generalisations about the Irish experience in Britain.

The Irish in Scotland constituted the most numerically significant element of the Irish community in Britain for a long period. Richard McReady examines this experience, pointing to the patchiness of research in the area. The Irish in eastern Scotland, for instance, are largely ignored, yet almost 20% of the population of Dundee in 1851 were Irish-born. Moreover, the Irish in Scotland had a range of socio-economic backgrounds and many were skilled labourers. McReady identifies the period of the Irish independence struggle and particularly the subsequent civil war as a key moment in the separation of the Irish in Scotland from Ireland.

Tracey Connolly's exploration of wartime migration to Britain identifies this often neglected period as more of a watershed than is often realised. The arrival of significant numbers of Irish workers and their integration into British society through their presence in the armed forces and industry foreshadowed the massive Irish labour migration of the 1950s. Connolly's article also highlights other lesser-known aspects of this period, such as the significant migration which took place to Northern Ireland.

The "new Irish" of the 1980s are the subject of Breda Gray's article. She points to the mediatisation of the image of the "high-flying" emigrant, by inference a very different kind of migrant than those who had gone before. She discusses the new Irish in the light of their new conscious positioning as an "ethnic" group in "multicultural" London and looks in particular at the role of women. Gray examines the extent to which the term "diaspora" may now be a more useful way of evoking the experiences and representations of modern Irish migrants in Britain, as they negotiate double identities in a contingent, shifting universe.

Brendan Halpin analyses the current Irish population of Britain in detail, using the results of the Labour Force Survey and other statistical sources. His overall conclusion confirms the different characteristics of the "new Irish" of the1980s compared to those of the 1950s but, as Halpin warns "â€¦ the simple dichotomy between low-skill 1950s emigration and high-skill 1980s emigration does not hold entirely: even among more recent migrants, the poorly educated are well represented."

Donald Akenson's article attacks the entire concept of Irish "exceptionalism" in the field of migration. He disagrees sharply with Kerby Miller's vision, set out in Emigrants and Exiles, of a premodern Irish culture unable to cope with migration and change and falling back upon a nostalgic, passive vision of the past.

Ruth-Ann Harris summarises her extensive work on the Boston Pilot's Missing Friends column (more than 30,000 persons between 1831 and 1863). Her approach shows how the social network of Pilot readers functioned as a virtual network for Irish migrants - well over a century before the Internet. She also analyses the changing class structure of migration, especially after the replacement of sail by steam. Diversity again emerges as a theme.

Malcolm Campbell's comparative exploration of Irish migrants in Minnesota and New South Wales shatters a number of myths. He stresses the value of cross-cultural analysis at regional level and compares and contrasts the fortunes of the migrant Irish in rural Minnesota and rural New South Wales. He points to the clear success of the Irish in New South Wales as proof that the Irish as migrants were not irredeemably urban - in the Australian case they were just as likely to be involved in farming as anyone else. In Minnesota, the ill-thought-out scheme to translate impoverished unskilled migrants from Connemara into an environment for which they did not have the skills needed to survive overshadowed other quite successful group migration schemes in which Archbishop John Ireland played a major role. Campbell suggests that the key factor in explaining the differential patterns of Irish experience in New South Wales and Minnesota is not the migrants themselves but the host society. Moreover, there were considerable similarities between the two groups.

A whole section of the book is rightly devoted to Irish participation in the building of the British Empire. Comparatively little research has been done on this area until the recent past. Apart from the dominance of American scholarship in Irish migration studies, this may reflect a certain reluctance in Irish circles to address the role of the Irish, not as the colonised, but as participants in the colonising process. Akenson's trenchant views are well-known and may have raised hackles in the past but he has also helped to open valuable new fields of enquiry.

The fourth part of the book address a series of topics of a more general nature. Damian Courtney discusses the statistical difficulties inherent in estimates of contemporary migration and the inadequacy of the old "residual" method of calculating migration flows. He highlights the role of the new Quarterly National Household Survey in providing new and more accurate data and discusses a number of other new data sources such as child benefit statistics, the register of electors and school enrolments.

Jim MacLaughlin's discussion of voluntarist and structuralist approaches to recent Irish migration highlights the extent to which a false construction of recent Irish migration over-emphasises an unrepresentative highly-educated minority. This overlooks a fundamental continuity in migration patterns, in which largely disadvantaged migrants with limited opportunities in the "Celtic Tiger" economy continue to perform low-skilled tasks in other economies. MacLaughlin uses world systems theory, empirical data and comparisons with other "emigrant nurseries" to analyse underlying structural and behavioural syndromes, stressing at the same time that recent changes in Irish society have been so radical "that they constitute a.. discontinuity with more traditional views of Ireland as a self-governing and identifiable territorial community". Pessimistically, he sees the tendency of young people to look outside the country, even if the migration choice is now more likely to be Europe, as a reflection of a deterioration in national politics and of the emergence of a culture of dependency.

Enda Delaney places the Irish migration experience of the second half of the 20^th century in a comparative European perspective, pointing out that rural depopulation and mass migration are not unique to Ireland in this period. He identifies strong parallels with southern Europe, especially Italy, and sees these movements as classic periphery-core flows - "clearly this is a movement out of the underdeveloped agricultural economy in to the advanced capitalist one, albeit across national boundaries". He also points to the need for more comparative regional and local studies.

Conclusions

It is hoped that the present volume will constitute a modest addition to the growing scholarship in the field of Irish migration studies. Much remains to be done however, and there are neglected areas of study. Gender has belatedly begun to receive a degree of attention but more work needs to be done in this field. The impact of class on migration is still under-theorised and under-studied. The changing nature of Irish society itself, and the impact of return migration and of new immigration in Ireland, has only begun to be studied. There is a need to attend to marginalised and disadvantaged groups within the Diaspora, such as the elderly Irish in Britain. More comparative and longitudinal studies are needed. Much can be gleaned from non-social science perspectives, including creative, literary critical and ethnomusicological viewpoints.

The comparative statistics set out in Baines (and by Bielenberg in this volume) suggest that the Irish experience of migration, in terms of volume and persistence, may fairly be described as unique, at least for the period between the Great Famine and the mid-twentieth century. While this may give some comfort to defenders of the "exceptionalist" viewpoint, Irish migration is nonetheless clearly part of a European pattern. Moreover, the diversity of reasons for leaving, the destinations chosen and the experience of integration into the new host society point to the dangers of any generalisations in this most complex field.

NOTES

[1] See, for example, Jackson J.A. (1986). Migration. London and New York: Longman; Douglas S. Massey, D.S. Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., Taylor, J.E. 'Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal', Population and Development Review, Vol. 19, No. 3. (Sep., 1993), pp. 431-466.

[2] For an early Irish usage, see Oâ€™Brien J.A. (1954) The Vanishing Irish: the Enigma of the Modern World London: W.H. Allen; p.8. See also Hall, Stuart (1990), â€˜Cultural Identity and Diasporaâ€™ in Jonathan Rutherford (ed.), Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, London: Lawrence & Wishart; Clifford James (1992), â€˜Travelling Culturesâ€™ in Cary Nelson and Paula A. Treichler and Lawrence Grossberg (eds.), Cultural Studies, New York and London: Routledge; Chow, Rey (1993), Writing Diaspora. Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press; Jacobson, Matthew Frye (1995), Special Sorrows: The Diasporic Imagination of Irish, Polish, and Jewish Immigrants in the United States. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press; Brah, Avtar (1996), Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities. London and New York: Routledge; Cohen, Robin (1997), Global Diasporas: An Introduction, London: UCL Press; Gilroy, P. 'Diaspora and the Detours of Identity' in Woodward, K. (ed.) (1997) Identity and Difference. London: Sage/Open University; Lavie, S., Swedenburg, T. (eds) (1998) Displacement, Diaspora and Geographies of Identity Durham, N.C.: Duke U.P.

[3] Ravenstein, E.G. (1885, 1889) 'The Laws of Migration' Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, XLVIII, 2, 167 - 227; LII, 2, 241-301.

[4] Park, R.E. et al (1967) The City. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press.

[5] Glazer, N., Moynihan, D.P., (1970: 2^nd edition) Beyond the Melting Pot : the Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York city. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

[6]Goldberg, D.T. (1994) Multiculturalism : a critical reader Oxford, UK ; Cambridge, USA : Blackwell Publishers.

[7] Wallerstein, I. (1974) The modern world-system New York : Academic Press.

[8] See, for example, Bird, Jon; Curtis, Barry; Mash, Melinda; Putnam, Tim; Robertson, George; Tickner, Lisa (eds) (1994) Travellersâ€™ Tales: narratives of home and displacement, Routledge, London; Kaplan, Caren (1996) Questions of Travel. Postmodern discourses of displacements, London: Duke University Press. Lavie, S., Swedenburg, T. (eds) (1998) op. cit.

[9] Lequin, Y., (1988) La MosaÃ¯que France: Histoire des Ã‰trangers et de l'immigration en France. Paris: Larousse. Castles, S. et al (1984) Here for good : western Europe's new ethnic minorities London : Pluto Press, 1984

[10] Castles, S. and Miller, J. M. (1993), The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. London: Macmillan; Collinson, S. (1993) Europe and international migration London : Pinter; King, R. (ed.) (1995) Mass migration in Europe : the legacy and the future. Chichester, West Sussex, England ; New York : Wiley.

[11] Liebkind Karmela (ed.) (1989) New identities in Europe: immigrant ancestry and the ethnic identity of youth Aldershot: Gower; Von Benda-Beckmann Keebet and Verkuyten Maykel (eds) (1995) Nationalism, ethnicity and cultural identity in Europe Utrecht: European Research Centre on Migration and Ethnic Relations; Emmer, P.C., Morner, M. (eds) (1992) European expansion and migration : essays on the international migration from Africa, Asia and Europe Oxford: Berg; Collinson, Sarah (1995) Migration, visa and asylum policies in Europe London: HMSO; Spencer, S. (1994) Strangers and Citizens: A positive approach to migrants and refugees. London: Rivers Oram Press.; King, Russell (ed.) (1995) op. cit.; Cesarani David and Fulbrook Mary (eds) (1996) Citizenship, nationality, and migration in Europe London ; New York: Routledge; Joly, Daniele (1996) Haven or hell? asylum policies and refugees in Europe Basingstoke: Macmillan ; New York: St. Martinâ€™s Press in association with Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, University of Warwick; Favell, Adrian (1998) Philosophies of integration: immigration and the idea of citizenship in France and Britain New York: St. Martinâ€™s Press in association with Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, University of Warwick.

[12] Jackson, P., Penrose, J. (ed.) (1993), Constructions of Race, Place and Nation. London: UCL Press.

[13] Chambers, I. (1994), Migrancy, Culture, Identity, London and New York: Routledge

[14] Zolberg, A. et al (1996) The challenge of diversity : integration and pluralism in societies of immigration Aldershot, England ; Brookfield, Vt. : Avebury, 1996.

[15] For an example, see Kaplan, C. (1996) op. cit.

[16] O'Day, Alan (1996), 'Revising the Diaspora' in The Making of Modern Irish History: Revisionism and the Revisionist Controversy. London: Routledge.

[17] For example, see Doyle, D. N., Edwards, O. D. (1980) America and Ireland 1776-1976, Westport CT: Greenwood; Doyle, D. N. (1981) Ireland, Irishmen and revolutionary America 1769-1820, Dublin: Mercier Press.

[18] See, for example, Fitzpatrick, D. (1984) Irish Emigration 1801-1921, Dublin: Economic and Social History of Ireland. Fitzpatrick, D. (1995) Oceans of Consolation: Personal accounts of Irish Migration to Australia, Cork: Cork U.P..

[19] Government of Ireland (1995) Report of the Commission for Emigration and Other Population Problems. Dublin: Stationary Office.

[20] The economic and social implications of emigration Dublin (1991): National Economic and Social Council

[21] O'Hanlon, R. (1998) The New Irish-Americans. Niwot, Colo.: Roberts Rinehart.

[22] Doyle, D. N., Edwards, O. D. (1980) op. cit.; Doyle, D. N. (1981) op. cit.; Drudy, P.J. (ed.) (1985) The Irish in America: Emigration, Assimilation and Impact, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P.; O'Farrell, Patrick (1990) Letters from Irish Australia 1825-1929, Sydney: NSW U.P.. O'Farrell, Patrick (1986) The Irish in Australia, Kensington NSW: New South Wales U.P.. O'Farrell, Patrick (1987) The Irish in Australia, Sydney: NSW U.P.. O'Farrell, Patrick (1989) The Irish in Australia and New Zealand 1891-1879, Oxford: In a New History of Ireland V, Ireland under the Union, Clarendon Press. O'Farrell, Patrick (1990) Vanished Kingdoms: the Irish in Australia and New Zealand, a personal excursion, Kensingto N.S.W.: New South Wales U.P.

[23] See Courtney, D., present volume; also Mac Ã‰inrÃ, P. (1997) 'Some Recent Demographic Developments in Ireland'. Ã‰tudes Irlandaises.

[24]Mac Ã‰inrÃ, P., op. cit.

[25] Adams, W. F. (1980) Ireland and the Irish emigration to the New World from 1815 to the Famine, Baltimore MD: Genealogical Publishing (also Russell and Russell, NYC).

[26] Adams, William Forbes (1980) Ireland and the Irish emigration to the New World from 1815 to the Famine, Baltimore MD: Genealogical Publishing (also Russell and Russell, NYC).

[27] Hannan, D. (1970). Rural Exodus: A study of the forces influencing the large-scale migration of Irish rural youth. London: Chapman.

[28] See, for example, Akenson, D.H. (1985) Being Had: historians, evidence and the Irish in North America, Ontario: Meany Port Credit, Ont.; Akenson, D.H. (1988) Small differences: Irish Catholics and Irish Protestants, 1815-1922, an international perspective, Montreal: McGill University; Akenson, D.H. (1990) Half the World from Home, perspectives on the Irish in New Zealand, Wellingtion N.Z.: Victoria U.P.; Akenson, D.H. (1990) Reading the texts of rural immigrants: letters from the Irish in Australia, New Zealand and North America, Gananoque: Canadian Papers in Rural history, Langdale Press.; Akenson, D.H. (1991) Occasional papers on the Irish in South Africa, Grahamstown: Grahamstown Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes U.; Akenson, D.H. (1994) The Irish Diaspora: A Primer, Belfast: QUB.

[29] See, for example, Doyle, D. N., Edwards, O. D. (1980) op. cit.; Doyle, D. N. (1981) op. cit. Doyle, D. N. (1991) The Irish as urban pioneers in the United States 1850-1870, Journal of Ethnic History Fall 1990-Winter 1991.

[30] See, for example, Fitzpatrick, D. (1984) Irish Emigration 1801-1921, Dublin: Economic and Social History of Ireland; Fitzpatrick, D. (1986) A Share of the honeycomb: education, emigration and Irishwomen. in Continuity and Change, vol. 1 (2), pp 217-234. Fitzpatrick, D. (1995) Oceans of Consolation: Personal accounts of Irish Migration to Australia, Cork: Cork U.P.; Fitzpatrick, R. (1989) God's frontiersmen: the Scots-Irish epic, London: Weinenfeld and Nicholson.

[31] See, for example, Miller, K.(1980). "Emigrants and Exiles: Irish Cultures and Irish Emigration to North America 1790-1922", Irish Historical Studies, XXII, pp 203-289; Miller, K. (1985). Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America. New York: Oxford University Press; Miller, K.; Boling, B. (1990) "Golden Streets, bitter tears: the Irish image of America during the era of mass migration". Journal of Ethnic History, vol. 10; Miller, Kerby (in Kearney R., ed.) (1990) Emigration, Capitalism and Ideology in post-Famine Ireland, Dublin: Wolfhound; Miller, Kerby (in Yans-McLaughlin V. ed.) (1990) Class, culture and immigrant group indentity in the United States: the case of Irish-American ethnicity, Oxford: Oxford U.P.

[32] see, for example, Ã“ GrÃ¡da, C. (1973) 'Seasonal migration and post-Famine adjustment in the West of Ireland', Dublin: Studia Hiberica 13, 48-76.; O'Rourke, K,. Ã“ GrÃ¡da, C. (1996) Migration As Disaster Relief : Lessons From The Great Irish Famine. UCD Dublin: Centre for Economic Research.

[33] See, for instance, O GrÃ¡da, C., Walsh, B.M. (1994) 'The Economic Effects of Emigration: Ireland' in Asch, B. (ed.) Emigration and its effects on the sending country. Santa Monica: Rand.

[34] O'Farrell, Patrick (1984) Letters from Irish Australia 1825-1929, Sydney: NSW U.P.; O'Farrell, Patrick (1986) The Irish in Australia, Kensington NSW: New South Wales U.P.; O'Farrell, Patrick (1987) The Irish in Australia, Sydney: NSW U.P.; O'Farrell, Patrick (1989) The Irish in Australia and New Zealand 1891-1879, Oxford: In a New History of Ireland V, Ireland under the Union, Clarendon Press.; O'Farrell, Patrick (1990) Vanished Kingdoms: the Irish in Australia and New Zealand, a personal excursion, Kensingtons N.S.W.: New South Wales U.P.

[35] Glazer, I., Moynihan, D.P. (1963) Beyond the Melting Pot. Cambridge MA: M.I.T. Press.

[36] Handlin, O. (1968) Boston's Immigrants: A Study in Acculturation, New York: Atheneum Publishers; Handlin, O. (1973), The Uprooted . Boston : Little, Brown And Company.

[37] Miller, K. (1985) op. cit.

[38] Diner, H.A. (1992). Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

[39] Nolan, Janet (1989) Ourselves Alone: Women's Emigration from Ireland 1885-1920, Lexington: U.P. Kentucky

[40] Hickman (1995) Religion, class and identity: the State, the Catholic Church and the Education of the Irish in Britain. Aldershot.

[41] Walter, Bronwyn (1988) Gender and Irish migration to Britain, Cambridge: Geography Working Paper No. 4, Anglia H.E.C.

Walter, Bronwyn (1991) Gender and recent Irish migration to Britain, Dublin: Geographical Society of Ireland Special Publications 6.

[42] e.g. Gray, B. (1997) '(Dis)locating Irishness in the 1990s: The views of Irish women at home and abroad', in Location and , ed. Jim Mac Laughlin. Cork: Cork University Press. Also this volume.

Add references

[43] Bayor, R., Meagher, T. (1996) The New York Irish. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U.P.

[44] See, for instance, Feldman, A. (1996) '"Gaelic Gotham": Decontextualising the Diaspora' in Eire-Ireland, 31.

[45] Elliott, B. S. (1988) Irish migrants in the Canadas: a new approach, Kingston: McGill Queens University Press.

[46] Fitzpatrick, D. (1995) Oceans of Consolation: Personal accounts of Irish Migration to Australia, Cork: Cork U.P..

[47] Hogan, E. 1990) The Irish missionary movement : a historic survey 1830-1980. Dublin : Gill and Macmillan.

[48] Coghlan, E. A. (1987) Las Irlandeses en la Argentina - su actuacion y descendiencia, Buenos Aires 1987: n.a.

[49] See McKenna's article in the present volume.

[50] O'Sullivan P., (ed.) (1992) The Irish World Wide: Irish Women and Irish Migration, Leicester: Leicester U.P.; O'Sullivan P., (ed.) (1992) The Irish World Wide: Patterns of Migration, Leicester: Leicester U.P.; O'Sullivan P., (ed.) (1992) The Irish World Wide: Religion and Identity, Leicester: Leicester U.P.; O'Sullivan P., (ed.) (1992) The Irish World Wide: the Creative Migrant, Leicester: Leicester U.P.; O'Sullivan P., (ed.) (1992) The Irish World Wide: The Irish in the New Communities, Leicester: Leicester U.P.; O'Sullivan P., (ed.) (1992) The Irish World Wide: The Meaning of the Famine, Leicester: Leicester U.P.;

[51] See, for example, MacLaughlin, J. (1991) Social characteristics and destinations of recent emigrants from selected regions in the west of Ireland, Geoforum vol. 22, 3, 1991, p 323; MacLaughlin, J. (1993) Historical and recent Irish emigration: a critique of core and periphery and behavioural models, London: U. North London P.; MacLaughlin, J. (1993) 'Ireland: an "emigrant nursery" in the world economy, International migration' 31(1) pp 149-170; MacLaughlin, J. (1993). 'Defending the frontiers: the political geography of race and racism in the European Community'. Chapter 2, C.H. Williams (ed.) The Political Geography of the New World Order. London: Belhaven Press; MacLaughlin, J. (1995) Ireland: the Emigrant Nursery and the World Economy, Cork: Cork U.P.

[52] see D. Lloyd â€˜Making Sense of the Dispersalâ€™, pp. 3-4 The Irish Reporter Issue 13, First Quarter 1994.

[53]Ignatiev, N. (1995) How the Irish became White. New York: Routledge.

[54] Courtney, D.A. (1989) 'Recent Trends in Emigration from Ireland'. Paper given to Development Studies Association Annual Conference, QUB Belfast.; also chapter on demography and migration in Clancy, P., et al (1995) Irish Society: Sociological Perspectives Dublin: Institute of Public Administration; also chapter in present volume.

[55] Malcolm, E. (1996) Elderly return migration from Britain to Ireland : a preliminary study. Dublin : National Council for the elderly.

[56] Corcoran, M.P. (1991) Informalization of metropolitan labour forces: the case of Irish immigrants in the New York construction industry, Dublin: Irish Journal of Sociology vol 1, 1, pp 31-51; Corcoran, M. (1993) Irish illegals: transients between two societies Westport, Conn.: Greenwood

[57] Mac Ã‰inrÃ, P.(1989). "The New Europeans: the Irish in Paris today" in J.Mulholland and D. Keogh (eds) Emigration, Employment and Enterprise. Cork: Hibernian University Press, , pp 58-80; Mac Ã‰inrÃ, P. (1991). "The Irish in Paris: an aberrant community?" Contemporary Irish Migration, pp 32-41; Mac Ã‰inrÃ, P. (1992). "La migration contemporaine irlandaise: quelques perspectives". Paris: L'Irlande Politique et Sociale, No 4, pp 105-115., Corcoran, M.P. Corcoran, M.P. (1991) 'Informalization of metropolitan labour forces: the case of Irish immigrants in the New York construction industry', Dublin: Irish Journal of Sociology vol 1, 1, pp 31-51; Corcoran, M.P. (19?) Between two worlds?

[58] See, for instance, Baines, D. (1991) op. cit.; W.J. (1992) 'Irish Emigration, 1700-1920', in Emmer, P.C. and Moren, M. European Expansion and Migration. Oxford: Oxford U.P.

[59] Akenson, D.H. (1996), op. cit.

Bielenberg, A (2000) (ed.) The Irish Diaspora London: Pearson